Bacteriophages Vs Antibiotics

Bacteriophages are actually viruses highly specialized to attack bacterial cells while doing no harm to animal cells. When a phage discovers a bacterium to which it possesses the correct key—that is, suitable receptors on the bacterial cell to which the phage can attach its tentacle-like extensions—then the phage will inject its hereditary DNA into the bacteria cell. Taking over the bacterial cell's biochemical apparatus, the phage produces hundreds of phage copies, rupturing the cell. As the victim cell dies, the released phage copies attack any remaining bacterial cells like a pack of hungry wolves (Reidel).Advantages The advantages of the therapy are obvious. Bacteriophages are very specific parasites and, unlike antibiotics, do not damage the useful bacteria that live in and on the body. Phages are â€Å"intelligent† medicine: They increase just where they are needed, while antibiotics often do not get to where they are needed. Once all phage-susceptible bact eria have been killed, phages are eliminated from the body. The most apparent benefit of phage therapy is that although bacteria are able to develop resistance to phages the resistance is much easier to overcome.The reason behind this is that phages replicate and undergo natural selection and have probably been infecting bacteria since the beginning of life on this planet. Although bacteria evolve at a fast rate, so too will phages. Bacteria are most likely to modify the molecule that the phage targets, which is usually a bacterial receptor. In response to this modification phages will evolve in such a way that counteracts this change, thus allowing them to continue targeting bacteria and causing cell lysis.As a consequence phage therapy is likely to be devoid of the problems similar to antibiotic resistance. Increasing evidence shows the ability of phages to travel to a required site — including the brain, where the blood brain barrier can be crossed — and multiply in the presence of an appropriate bacterial host, to combat problems such as meningitis. However the patient's immune system can, in some cases mount an immune response to the phage (2 out of 44 patients in a Polish trial (Carson)).Development and production is faster than antibiotics, on condition that the required recognition molecules are known. Disadvantages According to Reidel, the phages' high specificity, with which they look for their bacterial victims, is at the same time also their therapeutic Achilles' heel. Therefore, either a cocktail containing many different types of phages must be developed by the infection control specialist, or a phage effective against the specific pathogen of each patient must be custom-made through detailed microbiological analytical work.Western regulatory authorities tend to loathe recognizing such manually manufactured anti-infective agents as medicines, which explains why currently phage therapy is routinely only available at phage therapy cen ters in Georgia (part of former Russia), Europe and Poland. However, the Wound Care Center in Lubbock, Texas, has started to treat patients. For chronic infections due to multi-resistant pathogens, phage therapy could become a kind of miracle medicine. Wikipedia condends that Bacteriophage therapy is generally very safe; however fevers can occur with phage treatment.This is thought to be caused by endotoxins released by the bacteria within the patient after they have been lysed by the phage (Herxheimer Reaction), of course this can happen with antibiotics also. Additionally care has to be performed in manufacture that the phage medium isn't contaminated with bacterial fragments and endotoxins from the production process. It is beneficial if testing on animals is performed to ensure safety. Lysogenic bacteriophages are also thought to be risky, and are now seldom used therapeutically.These viruses can act as a way for bacteria to exchange DNA, and this can help spread antibiotic resi stance or even, theoretically, can make the bacteria pathogenic. To work, the virus has to reach the site of the bacteria, and unlike antibiotics, viruses do not necessarily reach the same places that bacteria can reach. Finally, some non therapeutic (lysogenic) phages transfer genes between bacteria that code for pathogenicity, notable in cholera. This makes it important to identify the phages being used to show that they are not harmful ones. What are ANTIBIOTICS?An antibiotic, according to Wikipedia, is a drug that kills or prevents the growth of bacteria. They have no effect against viruses or fungal infections. Antibiotics are one class of antimicrobials, a larger group which also includes anti-viral, anti-fungal, and anti-parasitic drugs. They are relatively harmless to the host, and therefore can be used to treat infections. The term, coined by Selman Waksman, originally described only those formulations derived from living organisms, in contrast to â€Å"chemotherapeutic ag ents†, which are purely synthetic.Nowadays the term â€Å"antibiotic† is also applied to synthetic antimicrobials, such as the sulfa drugs. Antibiotics are generally small molecules with a molecular weight less than 2000 Da. They are not enzymes. Some antibiotics have been derived from mold, for example the penicillin class. Volume 4 of How Products Are Made says that antibiotics differ chemically so it is understandable that they also differ in the types of infections they cure and the ways in which they cure them. Certain antibiotics destroy bacteria by affecting the structure of their cells. This can occur in one of two ways.First, the antibiotic can weaken the cell walls of the infectious bacteria, which causes them to burst. Second, antibiotics can cause the contents of the bacterial cells to leak out by damaging the cell membranes. One other way in which antibiotics function is to interfere with the bacteria's metabolism. Some antibiotics such as tetracycline and erythromycin interfere with protein synthesis. Antibiotics like rifampicin inhibit nucleic acid biosynthesis. Still other antibiotics, such as sulfonamide or trimethoprim have a general blocking effect on cell metabolism. AdvantagesIt is estimated that the average duration of many infectious diseases and the severity of certain others have decreased significantly since the introduction of antibiotic therapy. The dramatic drop in mortality rates for such dreaded diseases as meningitis, tuberculosis, and septicemia offers striking evidence of the effectiveness of these agents. Bacterial pneumonia, bacterial endocarditis, typhoid fever, and certain sexually transmitted diseases are also amenable to treatment with antibiotics. So are infections that often follow viral or neoplastic diseases, even though the original illness may not respond to antibiotic therapy.Antibiotics in small amounts are widely used as feed supplements to stimulate growth of livestock and poultry. They probably ac t by inhibiting organisms responsible for low-grade infections and by reducing intestinal epithelial inflammation. In cattle, sheep, and swine, antibiotics are effective against economically important diseases. The use of antibiotics in dogs and cats closely resembles their use in human medical practice. In fish farms, antibiotics are usually added to the food or applied to the fish by bathing.The incidence of infections in fish, and animals in general, may be reduced by the use of disease-resistant stock, better hygiene, and better diet. Although effective against many microorganisms causing disease in plants, antibiotics are not widely used to control crop and plant diseases. Some of the limiting factors are instability of the antibiotic under field conditions, the possibility of harmful residues, and expense. Nevertheless, antibiotic control of some crop pathogens is being practiced, as is true of the rice blast in Japan, for example (Science and Tech). DisadvantagesSome individu als may have allergic reactions to antibiotics. If symptoms of an allergic reaction (such as rash, shortness of breath, swelling of the face and neck), severe diarrhea, or abdominal cramping occur, the antibiotic should be stopped and the individual should seek medical advice. Because antibiotics can affect bacteria that are beneficial, as well as those that are harmful, women may become susceptible to infections by fungi when taking antibiotics. Vaginal itching or discharge may be symptoms of such infections. All patients may develop oral fungal infections of the mouth, indicated by white plaques in the mouth.Injected antibiotics may result in irritation, pain, tenderness, or swelling in the vein used for injection. It is a common assertion that some antibiotics can interfere with the efficiency of birth control pills. Although there remain few known cases of complication, the majority of antibiotics do not interfere with contraception, despite widespread misinformation to the cont rary (Gale). And there’s also what is known as Antibiotic Resistance. Wikipedia says that Antibiotic Resistance is the ability of a micro-organism to withstand the effects of an antibiotic. It is a specific type of drug resistance.Antibiotic resistance evolves naturally via natural selection through random mutation, but it could also be engineered for the purpose of creating bio-weapons. SOS response of low-fidelity polymerases can also cause mutation via a process known as programmed evolution. Once such a gene is generated, bacteria can then transfer the genetic information in a horizontal fashion (between individuals) by plasmid exchange. If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called multiresistant or, informally, a superbug. Antibiotic resistance can also be introduced artificially into a micro-organism through transformation protocols.This can be a useful way of implanting artificial genes into the micro-organism. Phages Vs Antibiotics (A Summary) Bacteri ophages are great because: †¢ Bacteria evolve at a fast rate, but so do phages. This makes Bacteriophages devoid of problems similar to antibiotic resistance. †¢ Bacteriophages are very specific parasites and, unlike antibiotics, do not damage the useful bacteria that live in and on the body. Phages are â€Å"intelligent† medicine: They increase just where they are needed, while antibiotics often do not get to where they are needed.†¢ Development and production is faster than antibiotics. †¢ The recovery rate was discovered to be faster in some cases—a tribute to the speed with which the phage multiplied and overcame its host bacteria. †¢ Incidents of misuse are relatively unknown. Antibiotics are great because: †¢ The use of antibiotics on domesticated animals, closely resemble its use in human medicine thus greatly benefiting them. †¢ Phages work best when in direct contact with the infection, so they are best applied directly to an open wound.This is rarely applicable in the current clinical setting where infections occur systemically. †¢ Unlike Phages, which are hardly ever used for therapeutic reasons, antibiotics reduce the incidence of both suppurative and non-suppurative complications of sore throat. A new study from Holland has confirmed that antibiotics protect against quinsy. †¢ Lysogenic bacteriophages are thought to be risky. These viruses can act as a way for bacteria to exchange DNA, and this can help spread antibiotic resistance or even, theoretically, can make the bacteria pathogenic.To work, the virus has to reach the site of the bacteria, and unlike antibiotics, viruses do not necessarily reach the same places that bacteria can reach. †¢ Antibiotics are more readily available because phages have high specifity and require detailed microbiological analytical work. Conclusion The research is still ongoing. Though the odds are in favor of Bacteriophages becoming more common, there have been no large clinical trials to test their efficacy. This therapy today essentially exists only in some Eastern European countries, including Georgia and Poland.But largely because of the growing concern over antibiotic resistance, a lot more people in the medical field are interested in pursuing bacteriophages as an alternative to antibiotics on a large scale. W O R K S C I T E D 1. Reidel, William. â€Å"Book Review: Viruses vs. Superbugs: A Solution to the Antibiotics Crisis? † Epoch Times. (6 May, 2006). 14 April, 2007. http://en. epochtimes. com/news/6-5-6/41280. html 2. Carson, Christine, and Thomas Riley. â€Å"Non-Antibiotic Therapies for Infectious Diseases. † Communicable Diseases Intelligence Supplement on Antimicrobial Resistance 27 (2003): pages not given3. â€Å"Phage therapy. † Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 4 Apr 2007, 00:38 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 14 Apr 2007 . 4. â€Å"Antibiotic. † How Products Are Made. 2006. 14 April 2007 http://www. madehow. com/Volume-4/Antibiotic. html 5. Science and Technology Encyclopedia. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007 6. Gale Encyclopedia of Cancer. Michigan: Thomson Gale, 2005 7. â€Å"Antibiotic Resistance. † Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2007. Answers. com 14 Apr. 2007. http://www. answers. com/topic/antibiotic-resistance

External Changes And Internal Reforms Of The Last 40 Years

This essay will show that the external changes and internal reforms of the last 40 years have led to the retreat of the liberal democratic state. Perhaps, these changes and reforms have resulted in the revival of the state, but overall this has not been the case. This is due to the fragmentation and diminished accountability stemmed from the internal reform, new public management. Although the issue of Europeanisation is raised when discussing the state’s retreatment, I will focus on the topic of globalisation. This is because of the loss of power, sovereignty and nationality the state has suffered. The liberal democratic state has been in retreat due to its fragmentation and diminished accountability caused by the internal reform: new public management (NPM). NPM is an attempt to reform the public sector through the application of management techniques used in the private sector. In reality, NPM is a loose concept, consisting of different economic reforms. (Osborne 2009) While the adoption of NPM has had many advantages, there have been substantial unintended consequences from this implementation. This internal reform has resulted in a fragmentation of the state that has led to blurred and diminished accountability. Rhodes explains that within the UK civil service â€Å"the role of officials is increasingly constrained by new management systems and political controls. The obvious outcomes of these changes are fragmentation and diminished accountability.† (1994: 151) ThisShow MoreRelatedExternal Changes And Internal Reforms1865 Words   |  8 PagesHave the external chan ges and internal reforms of the last 40 years led to the retreat or revival of the liberal democratic state? Introduction Over the past 40 years, through internal reforms and external changes, many liberal democratic states are seen as losing their autonomy over their very own borders. 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A Debate On The Existence Of The Christian God - 904 Words

First I would like to thank Jerry947 for setting up this debate and being willing to discuss such a controversial topic. Per the rules laid out in the opening round I will present the case against the existence of the Christian God. The â€Å"Christian God† Before I begin, I want to re-emphasize that I am addressing what is known as the God of Christianity. Of course, I understand Christianity is fragmented when it comes to doctrine and beliefs. However, notwithstanding the difference in doctrine between Christian denominations, it seems reasonable to say that on balance, Christians believe in what is known as the Tri-Omni God. That is to say, they believe in a God that is Omnipotent, Omniscient, and Omnibenevolent. For the sake of clarity, I will briefly expand on what seems to be intended by these attributes Omnipotent is a reference to power. That is to say, one that is omnipotent is all powerful. For instance, Christians often refer to their God as the â€Å"Almighty.â€Å" Indeed, Mathew 19:26 reads â€Å"With God, all things are possible.†(1)Demonstrations of this supposed power include; healing the sick, causing a virgin birth, destruction, great floods, raising the dead, and creating the earth itself. C.S. Lewis, perhaps one of the most well know Christian Apologetics, stated the following. â€Å"His Omnipotence means power to do all that is intrinsically possible, not to do the intrinsically impossible. You may attribute miracles to him, but not nonsense. This is no limit to hisShow MoreRelatedAntony Flew on Christian Life1823 Words   |  7 Pagesbacks on their once held beliefs to argue that (Christian) faith is unreasonable and without real substance. Rationality seems to be the source of every argument for the non-existence of God, and is often understood as inheren tly opposing to faith. 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Dell Project Management Approach - 1081 Words

DELL DEpLoymEnt DESIGn AnD ImpLEmEntAtIon Let Dell Services help eliminate complexity and accelerate deployment. our ApproAch IS DESIGnED to ImprovE SpEED AnD rEDucE rISk The Dell Project and Program Management approach enables the alignment of all elements of a client deployment. This standardized and easy-to-understand framework can be tailored as necessary to complement and integrate with existing customer processes. From the beginning, we work collaboratively with our customers in a formal workshop to capture the detailed requirements and commence planning/design . To ensure seamless execution, we have identified four critical and universal checkpoints where we apply controls and measures so that disparate types of†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ Pilot and review: An essential part of any deployment is testing of all elements of the agreed approach to reduce the risk of compromising a successful outcome for the project and to identify areas for improvement. Our tried-and-tested approach is designed to ensure all areas are reviewed, with any lessons learned fed back to improve the approach and the likelihood of a successful outcome. †¢ eploy: Wherever possible, deployment tools may be used to automate the process and reduce manual intervention. D Where manual intervention is required, processes will be documented, tested and signed off to ensure consistency of approach. Consideration is given to the level of user intervention, interaction and disruption to ensure the deployment approach fits your requirements. This may be within or outside normal working hours, and could be integrated with a formal training and communications program. Tools are available to assist with user and data migration if required. †¢ ser sign-off: Customer experience is central to everything we do at Dell and it is vital to ensure the user experience is U consistent. To achieve this, a formal sign-off process agreed upon and documented. 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The Role of Financial Managerial Accounting Function Free Essays

Accounting is a major part of an organization or business, it help to provided information needed to manage and make economic decision in order to move the company or organization forward. Financial and managerial accounting work together with emphasis on the future of the company, but have different proposes that helps to enhance the organization both ways as in internal and external. The main purpose of financial accounting is to provide an external performance of the company or organization accomplishment to their stockholder, lenders, financial analysts, and creditors, tax authorities by prepare financial statement. We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Financial Managerial Accounting Function or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, it also reports past and present transactions on the balance sheet and the company’s income and cash flow statement. Managerial accounting is use to focus on providing information within the company or organization, of which includes planning and making decision for the company, it’s a manager’s job, he/she must have proficiency in the managerial accounting because it is the foundation of the company’s future, and the manager’s aim is to control the company’s operation by improving the way internal reports and external financial statement will be used in decision making within the company. In addition, Managerial accounting deal with topics such as cost behavior, profit planning, operational budgeting are all financial decision to be made to produce the external financial statements and its the managers of the managerial accounting department responsibility to have them done. To compare the two accounting system I would have to say they have similar function, they both produce reports one for external and one for internal that is use for making decision for the company. The managerial accounting deal with confidential financial reports that is used by the CEO’s within the organization or company, these reports are consist of sales forecasting, the company’s budgets analysis and comparative analysis and any type of merge or consolidation reports the company did in a day, weeks or months. In addition, these reports is generated on a timely basic such as weekly or monthly it is more flexible than financial reports, and it does not focus on general accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Moreover it is use by the CEO to fore see the future of where the company is going. The financial accounting is more concern with the external aspect of the company, so when generating the reports for their stockholders, lenders, financial analysts, and others outside of the company they apply the general accepted accounting principles (GAAP). In addition financial account reports or focus on the past in a more historical factor of the four financial statement of which include a balance sheet, income statement, owners’ equity statement and cash flows statement, the report are generated for a set period of time such as a fiscal year to give the company a history for the hold years. In conclusion financial and managerial accounting can be said that they play a very important part in business making decision, if the rules are apply in the correct and ethical manner by the CEO’s and mangers . How to cite The Role of Financial Managerial Accounting Function, Essay examples

Counseling and Diversity free essay sample

Abstract People of different cultures, including immigrants of today seem to differ from past generations in that they seek to retain many of their cultural values and are less interested in becoming homogenized within the U. S. culture. This distinctness can create a potentially complex situation for both the client and therapist who may differ substantially in their own cultural values. For successful therapy to take place, it is important for therapists to be culturally sensitive of clients and avoid stereotyping.Stereotyping is detrimental to the client/therapist relationship. Therefore, to minimize the risk of misunderstanding and misinterpreting our clients we should acknowledge the influence of culture and respond respectfully to these cultural differences, values, and beliefs. This paper will define counseling and diversity and its disparities such as stereotypes and how they can be influenced from a counselor’s perspective. This paper is an expression of my current thinking regarding a theoretical perspective of counseling and diversity. We will write a custom essay sample on Counseling and Diversity or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page IntroductionCounseling is a conversational process that can be instrumental in the development of skills that help those effectively confront and cope with uncertainties and conflicts. Counseling is for folks who are courageously facing their fears, who want more from their life, who want to expand their lives and achieve goals both personally and professionally. It’s a relationship that builds Confidence (Edwards, 2009 p90). Counseling is where a professional will give advice, opinions or direction based on what the patient has discussed with them. In some ways, a counselor could almost be seen as a guide.Counseling is done in an informal and comfortable environment where the patient is free to discuss what bothers them. They are free to express their feelings and emotions to someone they know are listening to them. It’s easy for people who don’t really know what counseling is to not realize there are many different types of counseling for different problems. Counseling is very much like therapy (Radcliff, 2009 p93) in that there are individual areas in which counseling focuses on. It is not simply one broad thing that one person covers. There are actually different subjects that different counselors will specialize in.There is marriage counseling, family counseling, career counseling, mental health counseling, substance abuse counseling, debt counseling, child development counseling and grief counseling, to name a few. Diversity means differences such as different religious beliefs, different cultural traditions, music, art, dancing etc. (Patchell Broussard,2009,p88) In the context of society and culture, diversity is usually mentioned in discussing multicultural societies. What do people from other cultures contribute when they migrate and become part of a new society. Why should these different traditions and customs be valued? They enrich a society because they allow people to experience different thinking processes, to see that there is more than one way of approaching issues or living ones life. Why is diversity important? Educating managers and staff on how to work effectively in a diverse environment helps the University prevent discrimination and promote inclusiveness. There is evidence that managing a diverse work force well can contribute to increased staff retention and productivity (Ogans, 2009 p91).It can enhance the organizations responsiveness to an increasingly diverse world of customers, improve relations with the surrounding community, increase the organizations ability to cope with change, and expand the creativity of the organization. In addition to contributing to these business goals, diversity can contribute to goals unique to the University as a public institution, such as increased accessibility and accountability to all res idents of the state. Cultural Norms and Differences Cultural norms are behavior patterns that are typical of specific groups.

Counseling and Diversity free essay sample

Abstract People of different cultures, including immigrants of today seem to differ from past generations in that they seek to retain many of their cultural values and are less interested in becoming homogenized within the U. S. culture. This distinctness can create a potentially complex situation for both the client and therapist who may differ substantially in their own cultural values. For successful therapy to take place, it is important for therapists to be culturally sensitive of clients and avoid stereotyping.Stereotyping is detrimental to the client/therapist relationship. Therefore, to minimize the risk of misunderstanding and misinterpreting our clients we should acknowledge the influence of culture and respond respectfully to these cultural differences, values, and beliefs. This paper will define counseling and diversity and its disparities such as stereotypes and how they can be influenced from a counselor’s perspective. This paper is an expression of my current thinking regarding a theoretical perspective of counseling and diversity. We will write a custom essay sample on Counseling and Diversity or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page IntroductionCounseling is a conversational process that can be instrumental in the development of skills that help those effectively confront and cope with uncertainties and conflicts. Counseling is for folks who are courageously facing their fears, who want more from their life, who want to expand their lives and achieve goals both personally and professionally. It’s a relationship that builds Confidence (Edwards, 2009 p90). Counseling is where a professional will give advice, opinions or direction based on what the patient has discussed with them. In some ways, a counselor could almost be seen as a guide.Counseling is done in an informal and comfortable environment where the patient is free to discuss what bothers them. They are free to express their feelings and emotions to someone they know are listening to them. It’s easy for people who don’t really know what counseling is to not realize there are many different types of counseling for different problems. Counseling is very much like therapy (Radcliff, 2009 p93) in that there are individual areas in which counseling focuses on. It is not simply one broad thing that one person covers. There are actually different subjects that different counselors will specialize in.There is marriage counseling, family counseling, career counseling, mental health counseling, substance abuse counseling, debt counseling, child development counseling and grief counseling, to name a few. Diversity means differences such as different religious beliefs, different cultural traditions, music, art, dancing etc. (Patchell Broussard,2009,p88) In the context of society and culture, diversity is usually mentioned in discussing multicultural societies. What do people from other cultures contribute when they migrate and become part of a new society. Why should these different traditions and customs be valued? They enrich a society because they allow people to experience different thinking processes, to see that there is more than one way of approaching issues or living ones life. Why is diversity important? Educating managers and staff on how to work effectively in a diverse environment helps the University prevent discrimination and promote inclusiveness. There is evidence that managing a diverse work force well can contribute to increased staff retention and productivity (Ogans, 2009 p91).It can enhance the organizations responsiveness to an increasingly diverse world of customers, improve relations with the surrounding community, increase the organizations ability to cope with change, and expand the creativity of the organization. In addition to contributing to these business goals, diversity can contribute to goals unique to the University as a public institution, such as increased accessibility and accountability to all res idents of the state. Cultural Norms and Differences Cultural norms are behavior patterns that are typical of specific groups.